Mastaba
The religion of Ancient Egypt was based on the belief in the afterlife, which was similar to the earthly life, and that is why tombs, along with temples, became the main architectural structures. The temple was the dwelling place of the god, and the tomb was the place where the spirit and body of the deceased resided. Tombs were carefully built and decorated, they were a symbol of eternity. The flowering of architecture of Ancient Egypt is associated with the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt.
In the period of the Early Kingdom tombs were quite simple structures with massive walls and resembled the appearance of a stoop at home. Arabs call such a tomb mastaba, which means “bench” in Arabic. The cities and palaces of ancient Egypt have long since become dust, and its temples and houses of the dead still serve as a source of inspiration for modern architecture.
The mastaba resembled the tombs of the pre-Dynastic period. The deceased was buried in a pit and poured into a hill, which was then shaped into a regular shape.and lined with bricks. Tombs could have many above-ground and underground rooms, richly decorated and containing utensils and supplies. The structure was based on wooden or raw brick supports, covered with rubble masonry and then brickwork.
The facade of the palaces
The facades of tombs apparently imitated the facades of palaces, for the tomb was the residence of the pharaoh in another life. Palaces were built of wood, and the custom of making facades of mud brick probably came from Mesopotamia. Often tombs were brightly painted, and traces of the coloring are still preserved today.
The burial chamber
The burial chamber was sometimes cut into the rock and lowered to a great depth. There could be several chambers, and some of them were closed by lowering stone slabs.
Necropolis
In one necropolis there were very small graves with one room belonging to ordinary community members or officials, and large ones belonging to the king’s relatives with many above-ground and underground rooms.
Raw brick
Raw brick, made from a mixture of mud and straw, was a common material for building houses in ancient Egypt.
It was also used in Mesopotamia, which made it possible to borrow the technique and apply it not only to domestic construction but also to monumental buildings.
False door
The tomb was the home of the deceased, meant for eternal life. And a blank door, stone or made of raw brick, imitated a real front door. Through it, the “double” of the deceased, Ka, could leave the tomb and return. The door was usually located on the eastern side facing the Nile.
The most complex tombs consisted of many rooms and represented a real residence for the deceased and at the same time a gateway to eternity. The rooms were decorated with reliefs with scenes from everyday life and ornaments. There were also storerooms, a prayer room, rest rooms and a dining room.
Pyramids
It is impossible to imagine Egypt without pyramids. The largest and most famous is the Pyramid of Cheops in Giza. It is the only structure of the Seven Wonders of the World that has survived to this day. The pyramids appeared during the III Dynasty (2780-2680 BC). They were the tombs of the pharaohs. By the IV dynasty the cult of the pharaoh intensified. He was considered a god. And the dead pharaoh was the patron of his country. At this time the ideal form for the eternal house of the pharaoh – a pyramid – was finally found. In the Middle Kingdom (2134-1786 B.C.) pyramids ceased to be exclusively royal. They became smaller in size, but were beautifully decorated inside with dew-paintings and reliefs, and their walls were covered with hieroglyphics known as Pyramid Texts.
Step pyramid. Saqqara (c. 2778 B.C.)
The step pyramid of the pharaoh of the III Dynasty Djoser was the earliest. It was part of a funerary ensemble consisting of a pyramid, southern and northern palaces and memorial temples. The ensemble is located in the southern part of the necropolis at Saqqara.
Originally a large mastaba of limestone blocks was erected. The walls were faced with stone slabs on the outside. On the north side was an entrance leading to a deep shaft. At the bottom there was a sepulchral chamber. In the course of construction, the tomb was increased in height by placing three more mastabas on top of the first one.
The Pyramid of Snofru in Meidum.
Originally the pyramid was conceived as a seven-stage pyramid, but then one more ledge was added to it, the intervals between mastabas were filled with small stone and the whole pyramid was faced with stone slabs. In shape it resembles two mastabas placed one on the other.
The Pyramid of Unas. Saqqara
This pyramid, which is a royal tomb and located next to the step pyramid, looks quite simple. Its walls are covered with carved hieroglyphs telling of the journey of the dead to the afterlife.
Snofru Pyramid in Dashur
The second pyramid of Snofru reminds mastaba on which the pyramid rises. The change of an angle of inclination of its faces from 56 degrees to 43 degrees has made its sides rhomboidal. Probably, it was necessary to make the pyramid more stable.
Funerary ensemble at Abusir (5th dynasty)
The ensemble includes a pyramid, lower and upper temples. The main core of the pyramid is faced with white limestone, the top is granite. The lower temple was like an entrance hall and was used as a wharf. The upper temple had a courtyard surrounded by a gallery, the roof of which was supported by columns.
Pyramids of the nobility. Abydos
Since the Middle Kingdom, pyramids were erected not only for pharaohs, but also for people of nobility and simply rich people. The pyramids were smaller in size, but richly decorated with drawings and reliefs.
The slabs in the pyramids
Grates were placed on the way to the burial chamber as protection against robbers. Wooden stakes supported the granite slab. If anything in the tomb was attempted to be moved, the slab would fall and the tomb would be sealed shut.
The Great Pyramids of Giza
The complex of pyramids built at Giza by the pharaohs of the 4th Dynasty, Cheops, Chephren and Mykerin is the largest in ancient Egyptian architecture. Thousands of stone blocks were ferried across the river. They were then dragged by special devices to the desert border to build tombs in the shape of regular pyramids here. In its time, the enormous scale
of the pyramids and their surrounding structures gave rise to theories about the oppressive and inhumane rule of the Egyptian pharaohs at this time. But the methods and techniques by which the pyramids were
the pyramids were built are still unclear.
The Great Pyramid of Cheops is the purest geometric form and to this day serves as a source of inspiration for architects in the construction of modern buildings, such as those in Paris.
The Great Pyramid of Cheops (2680-2565 B.C.)
The largest of the three pyramids. the pyramid of Cheops reaches 146.59 meters in height, it covers an area of 5.2 hectares. Imported limestone was used in the construction of the pyramid. On each side of the pyramid there was a recess with a royal boat for the pharaoh’s soul to travel.
The entrance to the pyramid is on the north side. A long corridor runs from the entrance to the burial chamber located in the center of the pyramid. These unadorned corridors were a sacred passage reserved for the dead.
Originally, the pyramids were lined with limestone, forming a smooth white surface, and the upper part may have been covered with gilded slabs with prayers embossed on them.
The inside of the pyramid consisted of thousands of stone blocks, weighing about 2.5 tons. Extracted in quarries with great labor and strengthened on a place with the help of a thin layer of lime mortar, they were put on their places by people.
Unloading stones
Four unloading stones are located above the entrance to the pyramid.
Above the ceiling of the burial chamber, several rows of masonry were left hollow to relieve the pressure of the huge mass. These techniques show that the Egyptians knew and put into practice the laws of physics. The entrance to a pyramid after burial has been carefully sealed.
The burial chamber of the pyramid of Cheops
The burial chamber, protected by a grate, is covered with five rows of masonry, each row of which consisted of nine stone slabs stacked one on top of the other. Two narrow corridors, the purpose of which is still unknown, led from the chamber to the outside.
Gallery of the pyramid of Cheops
The long gallery led to the burial chambers located on different levels. The vault of the gallery consists of seven gorieontal protruding one above another rows of masonry. Each next row supports the previous one. The unadorned masonry of the gallery complements the restrained monumental external appearance of the pyramid.
Sphinx
The Sphinx is located next to the pyramid of Chephren. It is carved from a large rock, resembling the shape of a reclining lion. It is one example of a depiction of a lion with a human head, wearing the traditional pharaoh’s headdress and with a false beard. The sculptor gave the head of the sphinx the portrait features of Chephren.
Necropolis of Giza
The three main components of the necropolis of Giza, the pyramids of Chephren, Cheops and Mykerin, are arranged on a diagonal axis. Their funerary temples faced toward the Nile. To the west were the mastpubs of the highest dignitaries.
Rock tombs
During the Old Kingdom period, pyramids were the main form of tombs of the Pharaohs. Mastabas were built for the burial of the nobility. But in the Middle Kingdom, tombs were built in the limestone hills near the Nile. Soon, tombs for the pharaohs were also being cut out
in limestone. The most famous rock tombs include the Valley of the Kings, the burial place of the pharaohs of the New Kingdom near Thebes on the west bank of the Nile. The tombs consisted of several rooms intended for funerary gifts and the burial of the deceased. They were decorated with brightly colored paintings depicting scenes of daily life, sacred ceremonies, mythological scenes and funeral rites.
Entrance portico. Beni-Hassan (2130-1785 B.C.).
The tombs at Beni-Hasan are carved into the rock. The tombs at Beni-Hasan are carved in the rock. A small shrine was usually built near the river bank, from which a road led to the rock tomb, ending in a platform framed by a portico with colonnades.
The entrance, framed by two columns, leads to a rectangular chamber with four columns, in the wall of which a niche is carved. The ceiling is flat or with a small vault. The entrance is the only source of light.
The columns are set on large flat round stone bases, which with slight modifications were used in Egyptian architecture.
Two kinds of columns were made for porticos: hexagonal with flat faces and hexagonal with concave faces. It is believed that they had a purely aesthetic function, softening the rigidity of the traditional rectangular structure of tombs. The columns taper slightly upwards and have a square slab in place of the capitals.
False passages
False passages, pits, and false chambers were meant to protect tombs from desecration. False passages led those who violated the peace of the tombs to an empty burial chamber, while the real burial was hidden beneath it.
The royal tomb. New Kingdom. Thebes
The rock-cut tombs were at first relatively simple in form. But since the 19th dynasty, the form began to develop into a complex system of chambers decorated with reliefs and connected by corridors and staircases. A special team of craftsmen from the village of Deir el-Medineh was invited to create the latter.
The luxuriously decorated burial chamber contained a sarcophagus. It was usually carved from a single piece of granite and covered with hieroglyphs that formed a beautiful graphic pattern.
The tombs of the Valley of the Kings were carved into the thickness of the cliffs in an attempt to hide them from robbers. There is also the tomb of Tutankhamun, perfectly preserved until the 20th century.
Temples
Temples, like tombs, were built of stone. They were the dwellings of the gods and resembled human dwellings. The scanty evidence of early temples is preserved only thanks to the construction of later temples in their place. The heyday of temple construction falls on the New Kingdom, the temples of this time glorified ancient Egyptian architecture and still rise above the modern cities surrounding them. The interiors of the temples were richly decorated. Depictions of the pharaohs, their victories and lives were common enough. Temples were also important social and political centers. In the New Kingdom era, the priesthood wielded enormous power, and temples were independent and served only the gods.
The burial temple
Burial temples were built near the tombs. In them gifts were brought to the deceased. The temple consisted of an entrance gallery, an inner courtyard, a sanctuary and a niche.
The temple of the sun. Abusir
During the V Dynasty, temples dedicated to the sun god Ra appeared. A paved corridor with an overhead light led to the temple at Abusir from the wharf on the Nile. In the center of the temple courtyard stood an obelisk, and near the temple – a stone sacred rook, dedicated to the sun god.
Temple of the Sphinx of Giza.
The lower temple of the pyramid of Chephren is located next to the sphinx. It adjoined the courtyard of the pyramid and was connected by a road with the upper temple.
Ramesseum (c. 1279 B.C.)
On the eastern side of the burial temple of Ramses II there was a pylon, behind which there was an open court with statues of the king in the form of the god Osiris. On the northern side of the courtyard was the facade of the palace with a portico with a double colonnade.
Cult temples
The temples had their own symbolism explaining the mythological origin of Egypt. The wall enclosing the temple marked the boundaries of the waters, and the base on which the sanctuary stood symbolized the primordial hill on which Egypt was founded.
Colossi
Colossi – huge statues carved from stone, depicting a seated or standing pharaoh in the form of a deity, with a crown or royal headdress. They were usually placed in front of temples and could weigh up to 1,000 tons.
Temple of Hatshepsut. Deir el-Bakri (XVIII dynasty).
The temple of Hatshepsut. unlike other funerary temples, had no burial. It was arranged on three terraces. From the prayer room below to the temple led the road, on the sides of which stood carved from limestone sphinxes. On the lower terrace was the first courtyard I with a pond, the second, with a portico with tetrahedral columns – on the middle terrace. The courtyard of the upper terrace was surrounded by a colonnade. To the lower terrace adjoined two sanctuaries – Anubis and Tathor. On the sides of the upper one rose five-meter statues of Hatshepsut.
High trapezoidal stone towers – pylons – framed the entrance to the temple. From above the pylons were covered with a cornice and skillfully decorated with reliefs. As a rule, on the front surface of the pylon there were stories about the life of the pharaoh, and on the back – ritual scenes.
Temples of Karnak. Thebes
Built at Thebes on the eastern bank of the Nile, the temple complex at Karnak was the center of the cult of Amon, the supreme deity of Egypt. Karnak became the center of religious life during the New Kingdom period. Perhaps that is why Thebes chose the site of the royal necropolis on the west bank of the Nile. Karnak was built over a long period of time. Pharaohs erected magnificent buildings here, hoping for the favor of the gods.
In the Amarna period (1570-1314 B.C.) attempts were made to reduce the power of the Karnak priesthood, the capital was moved to Amarna, a new cult was established, but with the death of Pharaoh Ehnaton the old order was quickly restored and Karnak began to flourish again.
Sphinx Alley
The sphinx alley led to the entrance of the temple complex – a wide road lined on both sides with statues of sphinxes. All the statues repeated each other. They created a mood of solemnity before the entrance to the temple.
The temple complex was enclosed by a powerful wall and consisted of the main temple dedicated to Amon, a sacred lake, temples to other gods, houses, schools and auxiliary buildings. It was the religious and social center of Thebes. The Karnak temple was dedicated to a triad of gods: Amon-Ra. Mut and Khonsu.
Huge in scale Karnak temple includes: pylons, several courtyards, hypostyle hall, prayer rooms, temples. The complex developed during the New Kingdom period. It is built of sandstone and limestone. Granite and quartzite were used to decorate the temples, statues and obelisks.
Behind the first pylon are the remains of a ramp. It was used during the construction of the pylon and then it was gradually destroyed.
Obelisk
By the example of the obelisk we can talk about the technological achievements of the New Kingdom. A huge monolithic granite block weighing up to 350 tons was delivered to the temple and decorated on the spot. Obelisks of the XVIII dynasty were covered with gilded hieroglyphs, which were texts dedicated to the god Ra.
Hypostyle
The Hypostyle (great hall with columns) at Karnak has 134 columns. It was built in the reign of Ramses II.
The columns divided the hall into several aisles, with the central one being higher than the side ones, and also supported the ceiling consisting of huge stone slabs. In the central nave, the columns were in the form of open pa-pyruses, while in the side aisles they were lotuses. There were windows in the ceiling of the central nave.
The capitals of columns imitating natural plant forms: papyrus, lotus, palms, go through the whole Egyptian monumental architecture. Their forms apparently originated from ancient reed sanctuaries. Now carved from stone, the columns were lavishly decorated with carvings and painted hieroglyphics, ritual designs, and natural ornaments.
Temple of Khonsu (c. 1198 B.C.)
This temple is dedicated to Khonsu (son of Amon and Mut) and is in traditional forms for temples of the New Kingdom. It is placed on a small elevation and has several steps. The ceiling is low. The temple had no windows and was illuminated by artificial light.
Nubian frontier
The southern frontier with Nubia, or Cush, was very important to Egypt, for Nubia is rich in gold and stone. The city of Aswan, where there were the richest granite quarries, lay on the border of the country, and caravans bringing gold, ivory, panther skins, and slaves passed through here. Here there were also estates of Egyptians, temples. The victorious campaigns of pharaohs of the New Kingdom to Nubia and West Asia strengthened authority of Egypt. By force of arms and cunning Egyptians have forced to recognize the authority on the huge territory. Nubia finally became an Egyptian province, and images of dark-skinned Nubians appeared in tombs of this time.
Abu Simbel
Although the temples are carved into the rock, they follow the traditional layout of Egyptian temples. They are the largest and most majestic structures that have been created throughout Egyptian history. Their main decoration is reliefs depicting the Battle of Kadesh, Pharaoh Ramses sacrificing captives to the gods.
The temple at Abu Simbel. Nubia (c. 1260 B.C.), built by Ramses II. this monumental temple was carved into the rock at Abu Simbel. On the sides of the entrance rise four huge portrait statues of Ramses II on the throne. The cornice is decorated with small statues of seated baboons, the sacred animals of the god Thoth. Above the entrance is a carved image of the sun god with the head of a falcon.
The portal of the temple had a traditional form with a narrow entrance. Behind it there was a hall with eight pillars to which statues of Ramses in the form of the god Osiris were attached. Behind the first hall there was a transverse hall in which the sacred rook was kept, a sanctuary and narrow chambers, which, apparently, were storage rooms.
Statues of Osiris. Abu Simbel
Eight statues depicting Ramses II as the god Osiris, king of the dead, were located in the first hall of the temple.
In the New Kingdom era, the cult of Osiris experienced a revival. The presence of a headdress characteristic for Osiris, the crown of Atef, indicates that the pharaoh depicted himself as an immortal god during his lifetime.
The gate was narrow. Above it rose an observation tower. A large detachment watched over the security.
At least eight fortresses of stone “ of raw brick had been built along the Nile.
In the south, two fortresses of raw brick, lined inside with stone, stood on the banks of the Nile, guarding the borders of Egyptian conquests.
Both the fort itself and the wall enclosing it demonstrate the features of constructions that anticipated the construction of later European castles. The embrasures in the wall and the prongs from which archers fired were already in Egypt, while moats and parapets were later inventions.
